However, the publisher has asked for the customary Creative Commons attribution to the original publisher, authors, title, and book URI to be removed. A third goal of a literature review is to see how prior studies were conducted. Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too … The relationship between number of fire trucks and damage the fire causes is spurious. Many researchers now use qualitative analysis software that helps them uncover important themes and patterns in the qualitative data they gather. Exit poll data indicate that 66% of 18- to 24-year-olds voted for Obama in 2008, while only 45% of those 65 and older voted for him. Step 1 The scientific method begins with a question or curiosity. Many researchers who do survey research (discussed in a later section) study people selected for a random sampleA subset drawn from the larger population in which every unit in the population has the same chance of being included in the subset. Phases of S.R. Nevertheless, research is a never-ending process, it may be proved wrong in further investigations. Each of these steps is dependent upon the others. While the results of the study (marketing research or social science research) for which you were interviewed might have been interesting, they could not necessarily be generalized to all students or all people in a state or in the nation because the sample for the study was not random. In this example, causal order is not very clear, and thus the second criterion is difficult to satisfy. As noted above, when we test a hypothesis, we want to be able to conclude that an independent variable affects a dependent variable. There are countless topics from which to choose, so how does a researcher go about choosing one? Here age is clearly the independent variable and voting preference the dependent variable. <> At a general level, research consists of three steps: 1. Several stages compose the sociological research process. The students who happen to be in the student center on a particular day might be very different in many respects from most other students on the campus. This other variable is the dependent variableA variable that is influenced by an independent variable., or the variable we think is affected by the independent variable (see Figure 2.3 "Causal Path for the Independent and Dependent Variable"). A researcher who interpreted a yes response from the former respondents as an indicator of an alcohol problem or a no response from the latter respondents as an indicator of no alcohol problem would be in error. <> As a minimum, measures should be as clear and unambiguous as possible. Phases of social research consist of a series of steps necessary to efficiently carry out research on any social phenomena. Yet, the moral integrity of the researcher is a critically important aspect of ensuring that the research process and a researcher’s findings are trust - worthy and valid. This should be a familiar process. As researchers analyze their data, they naturally try to determine whether their analysis supports their hypothesis. 2. (�M���%�#Chw�����!�10H!�m As you might remember from a science class, a hypothesisA statement of the nature of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. - The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows. Data gathered through observation and/or intensive interviewing, research designs discussed later in this chapter, are usually qualitative. For more information on the source of this book, or why it is available for free, please see the project's home page. This book is licensed under a Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 license. The relationship between the election of Ronald Reagan and the crime rate drop was thus only a coincidence. The first step in writing an academic research proposal is to idenitfy a general topic or subject area to investigate. Whatever unit of analysis is being studied, sociological research aims to test relationships between variables or, more precisely, to test whether one variable affects another variable, and a hypothesis outlines the nature of the relationship that is to be tested. The second variable is voting preference—for example, whether someone voted for Obama or McCain. /PageMode /UseNone • Every step of the research project, from formulating your research question to publication, needs to be ... • There are a wide variety of research methods available to social researchers, and they each raise their own ethics questions. After the literature review has been completed, it is time to formulate the hypothesis that will guide the study. Choosing the research problems and stating the hypothesis. Some interesting questions of measurement arise in this study. �� ����H����@��g��N�E�(���&�Fz���oa��f��7� ���X�� ��|�,ϻI�wx��x��]�lZz2�:��3K����h��f��:��o�I�{�'�$W�~0h�!�-�b�jH��;Sֵы�i�F")pHh��i*�*0o�'�U,��&I��� After all data have been gathered, the next stage is to analyze the data. As we discuss further in a moment, the most common unit of analysis in sociology is a person, but other units of analysis include organizations and geographical locations. How will the study add to theoretical knowledge of the topic? In “the old days,” researchers would conduct a literature review primarily by going to an academic library, consulting a printed index of academic journals, trudging through shelf after shelf of printed journals, and photocopying articles they found or taking notes on index cards. ��F�jh�g �F Chapter 1 "Sociology and the Sociological Perspective", Chapter 11 "Gender and Gender Inequality", Figure 2.3 "Causal Path for the Independent and Dependent Variable", http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blank_US_Map.svg, Figure 2.5 "Diagram of a Spurious Relationship". Data gathered through a questionnaire are usually quantitative. The two variables are thus statistically related, as younger voters were more likely than older voters to prefer Obama. The first step in the research process is choosing a topic. If the data are quantitative, the analysis will almost certainly use highly sophisticated statistical techniques beyond the scope of this discussion. 5. A variable that affects the dependent variable. That means that the independent variable makes a statistical difference for where one ranks on the dependent variable. scientific research in the social sciences, business, education, public health, and related disciplines. Phenomenological approach to research may be based on single cases as Overview of the Research Process Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter the reader will be able to: Explain the steps in the research process. The measurement of variables is a complex topic and lies far beyond the scope of this discussion. The link between theory and research lies at the heart of the sociological research process, as it does for other social, natural, and physical sciences. For example, on a campus of 10,000 students where 60% of the students are women and 40% are men, a researcher might decide to study 100 students by handing out a questionnaire to those who happen to be in the student center building on a particular day. This book is based on my lecture materials developed over a decade of teaching the doctoral-level class on Research Methods at the University of South Florida. The news story that began this chapter discussed an important example of this type of research. The third criterion involves spurious relationshipsA relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable that exists only because the effects of a third variable have not been taken into account.. A relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable is spurious if a third variable accounts for the relationship because it affects both the independent and dependent variables. This procedure might make the sample of 100 students more representative of all the students on campus than if it were not used, but it still does not make the sample entirely representative of all students. (It is possible for age to affect voting preference, but it is not possible for voting preference to affect age.) As its Web site (http://www.cssny.org/research) states, “research is a critical tool we use to increase our understanding of conditions that drive poverty as we advocate for public policy and programs that will improve the economic standing of low-income New Yorkers.”. Source: Adapted from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blank_US_Map.svg. The researcher needs to have adequate … After the hypothesis has been formulated, the sociologist is now ready to begin the actual research. After any measurement issues have been resolved, it is time to gather the data. This relationship satisfied the first three criteria: the crime rate fell after President Reagan took office in 1981, the drop in the crime rate could not have affected the election of this president, and there was no apparent third variable that influenced both why Reagan was elected and why the crime rate fell. endobj A key component of the CSS’s efforts today involves gathering much information about the lives of poor New Yorkers through an annual survey of random samples of these residents. This section discusses these various stages of the research process. Many statistical analysis software packages exist for this purpose, and sociologists learn to use one or more of these packages during graduate school. First, the researcher needs to determine that the study she or he has in mind has not already been done. Another specific type of nonrandom sample is the quota sampleA nonrandom sample in which units in the sample are chosen according to one or more characteristics so that the sample resembles these characteristics of the population as closely as possible.. A sociologist who was arrested during college for a political protest may become interested in studying how effective protest might be for achieving the aims of a social movement. First, the independent variable and the dependent variable must be statistically related. List the major stages of the sociological research process. But due to lack of money and funding, it usually repeats the hypothesis with few modifications. Once the data are analyzed, the researcher finally determines whether the data analysis supports the hypothesis that has been tested, taking into account the criteria of causality just discussed. For example, a sociologist whose parents divorced while the sociologist was in high school may become interested in studying the effects of divorce on children. Whatever topic is chosen, the next stage in the research process is a review of the literature. Because the needs of the poor are so often neglected and their voices so often unheard, the CSS calls this effort the Unheard Third survey, as the poor represent about one-third of the New York City population. �iB9.������P����� the research more interesting and meaningful for understudying social structures, policies and practices from the vantage point of personal perspectives of the actors visible clearly in the research study. /PageLayout /OneColumn Use the steps as an organizing mechanism for a research project. 2. Accordingly, this book discusses many examples of studies motivated by sociologists’ varied theoretical interests. The effects of an “aging” U.S. population on the nation’s crime rate. of the population of interest. But some respondents might answer yes to this question even if they only have a few drinks per year if, for example, they come from a religious background that frowns on alcohol use; conversely, some respondents who drink far too much might answer no because they do not think they drink too much. Although this sounds a bit complicated, an example or two should make it clear. Introduction II. Details For example, Émile Durkheim’s interest in the importance of social integration motivated his monumental study of suicide that Chapter 1 "Sociology and the Sociological Perspective" discussed. In one notable finding, the South has the highest regional homicide rate. In sociology, most of these studies are published in journals, but many are also published as books. Many sociologists since the 1970s have had a theoretical interest in gender, and this interest has motivated a huge volume of research on the difference that gender makes for behavior, attitudes, and life chances. The relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable must not be spurious. A researcher who begins a new project typically reads a good number of studies that have already been published on the topic that the researcher wants to investigate. A variableAny characteristic that varies among units of analysis. What exactly does being happy look like, and do all people look this way when they are happy? Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. Suffice it to say that accurate measurement of variables is essential in any research project. with things that matter, in ways that matter. (As Chapter 11 "Gender and Gender Inequality" discusses, gender is actually more complex than this, but let’s keep things simple for now.) ���t~�3�΃�J���$fh�*,���9^�W. Sources of research problems Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps: • People- a group of individuals It was established about 160 years ago and has made many notable accomplishments over the years, including aiding the victims of the Titanic disaster in 1912, helping initiate the free school lunch program that is now found around the United States, and establishing the largest senior volunteer program in the nation. Now researchers use any number of electronic indexes and read journal articles online or download a PDF version to read later. Essentially, social research is about investigating and seeking answers to the social questions that we and others ask about our social world. Figure 2.5 "Diagram of a Spurious Relationship" diagrams this particular spurious relationship; notice that there is no causal arrow between the attending college and having acne variables. In these ways, the CSS uses survey research in the service of society. "11 Steps" basically consists of 11 stages that complement each other as a method of discussion. 4. As Chapter 1 "Sociology and the Sociological Perspective" discussed and as this book emphasizes, the roots of sociology in the United States lie in the use of sociological knowledge to achieve social reform, and many sociologists today continue to engage in numerous research projects because of their social policy interests. Suppose we hypothesize that age was related to voting preference in the 2008 presidential election. In this type of sample, a researcher tries to ensure that the makeup of the sample resembles one or more characteristics of the population as closely as possible. For the sake of simplicity, let’s assume the unit of analysis is the person. While all social research projects share the five basic stages, but they are very different in how they are carried out. research, why it is important, and what constitutes high-quality applied research. For example, suppose we find a statistical relationship between marital happiness and job satisfaction: the more happy people are in their marriage, the more satisfied they are with their jobs. In the United States, for example, large cities generally have higher violent crime rates than small cities. Once appropriate data are gathered and analyzed, the researcher can then draw appropriate conclusions. Suppose we conduct a study of hospitals to see whether the patient-to-nurse ratio (the number of patients divided by the number of nurses) is related to the average number of days that patients stay in the hospital. The Community Service Society (CSS) of New York City is a nonprofit organization that, according to its Web site (http://www.cssny.org), “engages in advocacy, research and direct service” to help low-income residents of the city. How did they measure key concepts and variables? A nonrandom sample that is used because it is relatively quick and inexpensive to obtain. These stages include (a) choosing a research topic, (b) conducting a literature review, (c) measuring variables and gathering data, (d) analyzing data, and (e) drawing a conclusion. They can be overlapped. Usually this first point is the easiest because the research proposal will be tied to the overall theme of a course. To download a .zip file containing this book to use offline, simply click here. stream endobj A specific type of nonrandom sample is the convenience sampleA nonrandom sample that is used because it is relatively quick and inexpensive to obtain., which refers to a nonrandom sample that is used because it is relatively quick and inexpensive to obtain. High school classes often are used as a convenience sample in sociological and other social science research. Pose a question. In this example, gender is the independent variable and voting preference is the dependent variable. Social Research is a method used by social scientists and researchers to learn about people and societies so that they can design products/services that cater to various needs of the people. 2 0 obj 3. However, causal order is not as clear in other hypotheses. Convenience samples often include students, but they also include other kinds of people. <> <> Sociologists commonly base their choice of a research topic on one or more of the following: (a) a theoretical interest, (b) a social policy interest, and (c) one or more personal experiences. For example, sociologists concerned about poverty have investigated its effects on individuals’ health, educational attainment, and other outcomes during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Describe the basic components of each step. Key variables in sociological studies of people as the units of analysis include gender, race and ethnicity, social class, age, and any number of attitudes and behaviors. The selection of topic for research is a difficult job. The researcher must first choose a topic to investigate and then become familiar with prior research on the topic. Whether or not the hypothesis is supported, the researcher (if writing for publication) typically also discusses what the results of the present research imply for both prior and future studies on the topic. If the primary purpose of the project has been to test or refine a particular theory, the conclusion will discuss the implications of the results for this theory. Learn about the definition of social research along with its types and methods. Many sociologists also choose a topic based on a social policy interest they may have. VI. A relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable that exists only because the effects of a third variable have not been taken into account. >> From where did their data come? Data must be gathered via one or more of the research designs examined later in this chapter, and variables must be measured. Other researchers use nonrandom samples, in which members of the population do not have the same chance of being included in the study. More information is available on this project's attribution page. Depending on the purpose of the study, the population of interest varies widely: it can be the adult population of the United States, the adult population of a particular state or city, all young women aged 13–18 in the nation, or countless other variations. In this example, the city is the unit of analysis. The Unheard Third survey asks respondents their opinions about many issues affecting their lives and also asks them many questions about such matters as their health and health care needs, employment status and job satisfaction, debt, and housing. The major regions of the United States are often compared on various characteristics. The effects of an “aging” U.S. population on the nation’s crime rate. ��fzf SL!��H=P@:�����@����������{�h�bO���jjL���56���g"4]�a�K��!� �0���0 �� ���i�|�U�F�z�@C`M If the researcher decides to have a quota sample based on gender, the researcher will select 60 women students and 40 male students to receive the questionnaire. Normally, the author and publisher would be credited here. 1 0 obj An independent variableA variable that affects the dependent variable. This means that we can be fairly sure of the attitudes of the whole U.S. population by knowing the attitudes of just 400 people randomly chosen from that population. Survey research is useful for doc-umenting existing community conditions, characteristics of a population, and community opinion. of social research threaten those who have a stake in the matters being studied. A researcher who is doing a study “from scratch” must decide which people to study. is a statement of the relationship between two variables concerning the units of analysis the researcher is studying. What is research? Thus, the social researcher must design studies in ways that minimize, as much as possible, present and future competing explanations. Consider passing it on: Creative Commons supports free culture from music to education. How will the study improve on the methodology of earlier studies? Think of a personal experience you have had that lends itself to a possible research project. endobj Read on 7 Basic Steps in Formulating a Research Problem. Step-2: Review of Literature. To go back to a point just made, this means that variable measurement must also be as accurate as possible, because even expert analysis of inaccurate data will yield inaccurate results. PDF | In order to answer the research questions, it is doubtful that researcher should be able to collect data from all cases. Typically, a research project must answer at least one of these questions satisfactorily for it to have a chance of publication in a scholarly journal, and a thorough literature review is necessary to determine the new study’s possible contribution. The Seven Steps of the Research Process The Seven Steps of the Research Process The following seven steps outline a simple and effective strategy for finding information for a research paper and documenting the sources you find. A thorough literature review enhances the methodology of the researcher’s new study and enables the researcher to correct any possible deficiencies in the methodology of prior studies. Instead of asking couples how happy they are through a questionnaire, the researcher decides to observe couples as they walk through a shopping mall. In a questionnaire, for example, a question should be worded clearly and unambiguously. The answers a respondent gives to a questionnaire are coded for computer analysis. Controlling for age makes it clear that the original relationship between attending college and having acne was spurious. A nonrandom sample in which units in the sample are chosen according to one or more characteristics so that the sample resembles these characteristics of the population as closely as possible. work research is not completely identical to social research. However, social scientists pointed to another reason that accounted for the crime rate decrease during the 1980s: a drop in the birth rate some 15–20 years earlier, which led to a decrease during the early 1980s of the number of U.S. residents in the high-crime ages of 15–30 (Steffensmeier & Harer, 1991).Steffensmeier, D., & Harer, M. D. (1991). The term ethics derives from the Greek word ethos, meaning “character.” To Although different methods are used in social science research, the common goal of a social research is one the same, i.e. It might well be that the dependent variable is affecting the independent. The “Sociology Making a Difference” box further discusses research of this type. Social science researchers follow the five steps of the scientific method to conduct their research. For example, the U.S. crime rate dropped in the early 1980s, and in 1984 the reelection campaign of President Ronald Reagan took credit for this drop. The CSS then uses all this information in reports about the needs of the poor and near-poor in New York that it prepares for city and state officials, the news media, and key individuals in the private sector. Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that women were more likely than men to have voted for Obama in 2008. Certainly not. Does that mean that fire trucks somehow make fires worse, as the familiar saying “too many cooks spoil the broth” might suggest? If you ever filled out a questionnaire after being approached in a shopping mall or campus student center, it is very likely that you were part of a nonrandom sample. These protocols can vary slightly between scientific disciplines, but all follow the same basic structure. Consider the following question from a survey: “Generally speaking, are you very happy, somewhat happy, or not too happy?” Write a brief essay in which you evaluate how well this question measures happiness. Surveys lend themselves to random samples, for example, while observation studies and experiments lend themselves to nonrandom samples. See the license for more details, but that basically means you can share this book as long as you credit the author (but see below), don't make money from it, and do make it available to everyone else under the same terms. Second, how sure can the researcher be of the approximate age of each person in the couple? Even if the first three criteria are satisfied, that does not necessarily mean the two variables are in fact related. Examples: density research. 6 0 obj In this chapter, you will find an outline of the steps needed to conduct surveys using both the questionnaire and interview methods. For example, if a question asks whether respondents consider themselves to be politically conservative, moderate, or liberal, those who answer “conservative” might receive a “1” for computer analysis; those who choose “moderate” might receive a “2”; and those who say “liberal” might receive a “3.”.